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Dairy Sci. S 91 Vassilev, S. An overview of the chemical composition of biomass. Revenue generated from bioproducts provides added value, improving the economics of biorefinery operations and creating more cost-competitive biofuels. There are four types of conversion technologies currently available that may result in specific energy and potential renewable products:.
Thermal conversion is the use of heat, with or without the presence of oxygen, to convert biomass into other forms of energy and products. These include direct combustion, pyrolysis, and torrefaction. Thermochemical conversion is commonly referred to as gasification. This technology uses high temperatures in a controlled partial combustion to form a producer gas and charcoal followed by chemical reduction.
A major use for biomass is for agriculture residues with gas turbines. Advanced uses include production of diesel, jet fuel and chemicals. Biochemical Conversion involves the use of enzymes, bacteria or other microbes to break down biomass into liquids and gaseous feedstocks and includes anaerobic digestion and fermentation. The use of feedstock with high moisture content reduces biomass conversion efficiency and as well the production rate. This is because the process discharges more fuel or heat in order to vapourize the excess moisture to the temperature of the syngas [ 13 ].
Also, high moisture content in a biomass reduces the achieved temperature in the oxidation zone which results in incomplete cracking of the products released in the pyrolysis zone. Consequently, high moisture content in the biomass feedstock affect the syngas composition or quality due to production of CO 2 from reaction between the moisture. Furthermore, using feedstock that has high moisture content results in the production of syngas with high moisture, which subsequently course additional stress on downstream cooling and filtering equipment [ 14 ].
Hydrothermal gasification is a biomass treatment that involves the use of water at high temperatures and pressures. Products formed during this process is as a result of different reactions that takes place in the biomass which mainly depends on factors like temperature, pressure, and time of treatment.
To understand the process, behavior of water at high temperature and pressure must be known. Figure 3 indicated the phase diagram of water, where at However, boiling point of water is affected by pressure and this means at high pressure the boiling point decreases, while at low pressure it increases.
Likewise, pressure has effect on volume of water when it changes to steam. The volume of water increases greatly when it changes to steam. This change in volume is as high as times under atmospheric pressure. Phase diagram of water [ 9 ]. At increased pressure, the volume of liquid water is not affected when compared to steam volume. Therefore, under increased pressure, the increase in volume associated with the phase change becomes smaller Figure 4.
The volumes for both water and steam were found to be equal at Also, when the pressure is higher than this value, no noticeable phase change is seen. At this point, the pressure is called the critical pressure of water, while the temperature is called critical temperature of water which corresponds to K.
This point on the phase diagram, is called the critical point. If the temperature and pressure are above these critical values, the water is called supercritical water, while when the values are below the critical values, the water is called subcritical [ 9 ]. Pressure effect on volume change when water changes into steam [ 9 ]. Hydrothermal treatment of biomass can be carried out in either supercritical or subcritical water.
That is when the temperature and pressure of the water is high. Under these conditions, the polymeric components of the biomass such as hemicellulose and lignin are dissolved together with small fraction of cellulose [ 15 ]. This process is mainly physical and requires harsh reaction conditions since the decomposition of the polymeric substances is limited. The process is often employed for saccharification of cellulose Figure 5 or for an increased biomethanation of lignocellulosic biomass [ 16 , 17 , 18 ].
Reaction network for hydrothermal gasification of cellulose [ 9 ]. The term pyrolysis is defined as the thermal depolymerization of organic matter in the presence of nitrogen or absence of oxygen. The vapours composed of fragments from cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin polymers. These vapours can be condensed into free flowing organic liquid known as the bio-oil.
On the other hand, the remaining carbon residues is left as bio-char Figure 6 [ 20 ]. Carbonization reaction scheme of a carbonaceous material [ 19 ]. The polymeric substances distribution in bio-oil largely depends on the lignocellulosic contents of the biomass feed [ 21 ]. Many researchers investigated the individual pyrolysis characteristics of cellulose, hemicellulose and as well lignin. From energy view point, cellulose pyrolysis was observed to be an endothermic reaction, while the reactions of hemicellulose and lignin is an exothermic.
The gaseous products obtained from pyrolysis of these three components were similar and mainly comprises of CO 2 , CO, CH 4 and other organic gases. Micro-GC was employed to analyzed the releasing behaviour of the H 2 and total gases released when the three gases were pyrolyzed in a packed bed.
Hemicellulose was observed to have higher yield for CO 2 , cellulose gives higher yield for CO with high presence of aromatic ring and methoxyl, while the lignin cracking and deformation yields higher H 2 and CH 4. Cellulose pyrolysis involves the cleavage of glycosidic groups via dehydration which is followed by the breakdown of anhydroglucose units. The dehydration and breakdown of sugar molecules at lower temperatures, results in the formation of char.
Shafizadeh and Fu [ 23 ] reported char yield of At high temperatures, there is enough energy to initiate the rapid cleavage of glycosidic bonds and evaporation of gaseous products was favoured. However, the distribution of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in a bio-oil is predominantly determined by the interactions between these components rather than just their quantities.
Rowell [ 24 ] suggested that hemicellulose and cellulose were bonded through hydrogen bond, while hemicellulose and lignin were covalently bonded via ester bonds. The bonds that exist between these polymeric substances influence the pyrolytic behaviour of the biomass which may bring about a difference in products distribution when compared to a sample prepared synthetically by physical mixing.
Couhert et al. One of the mixtures was prepared by simple mixing, while the other was prepared by intimate mixing. He discovered that, the yield for CO 2 increases with an increase in intimacy of the mixture. Hence, the effect of components interaction may differ in a physical mixture in comparison with the actual biomass sample, because the structure of the biomass can affect pyrolysis outcome which alter selectivity for certain products [ 26 ].
The necessary conditions for pyrolysis are temperature, pressure, heating rate, residence time, environment, catalyst, etc. This conditions greatly determines the nature of the products formed after pyrolysis [ 27 ].
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