It will be useful therefore to review in some detail some of the forms of racism that are implied in this model. Individual racism involves both the attitudes held by an individual and the overt behaviour prompted by those attitudes.
The attitudes are often obvious: extremely intolerant, bigoted individuals tend to be proud of their attitudes and articulate them overtly and publicly. But, they may show their attitudes by practicing racial discrimination. From Henry, Tator, et. Everyday racism involves the many and sometimes small ways in which racism is experienced by people of colour in their interactions with the dominant White group.
It expresses itself in glances, gestures, forms of speech, and physical movements. Institutional racism is manifested in the policies, practices, and procedures of various institutions, which may, directly or indirectly, consciously or unwittingly, promote, sustain, or entrench differential advantage or privilege for people of certain races. It also includes organizational policies and practices that, regardless of intent, are directly or indirectly disadvantageous to racial minorities, such as the lack of recognition of foreign credentials or the imposition of inflated educational requirements for a position.
Systemic racism, although similar to institutional racism, refers more broadly to the laws, rules, and norms woven into the social system that result in an unequal distribution of economic, political, and social resources and rewards among various racial groups. It is the denial of access, participation, and equity to racial minorities for services such as education, employment, and housing.
Systemic racism is manifested in the media by, for example, the negative representation of people of colour, the erasure of their voices and experiences, and the repetition of racist images and discourse. Difference can be expressed in several ways.
Finally, difference can by defined by culture, values, and norms, which lead to the stereotype that Blacks come from inferior cultural backgrounds. Difference as it relates to racism and sexism is founded on the biological paradigm, but there have been several attempts to mitigate its effects.
This was and to a considerable extent still is prominent in many social scientific thinking. The concept originated in the interaction between colonizer and colonial and is prominent in the literature on post-colonialism Said, ; Bhabha, In many ways, the concept of the Other is similar to stereotyping but it carries larger and more symbolic meanings. The process of othering is also a denial of history; it presents a barrier to change and can be understood as a myth.
Marginalizing others places them out of the bounds of mainstream history; it mythologizes them as culturally, intellectually and morally inferior and so robs millions of people of their identities and their very personhood.
Race and ethnicity are two concepts related to human ancestry. However, both are social constructs used to categorize and characterize seemingly distinct populations. Ethnicities share a cultural background. Neither race nor ethnicity is detectable in the human genome. Humans do have genetic variations, some of which were once associated with ancestry from different parts of the world. But those variations cannot be tracked to distinct biological categories.
Genetic tests cannot be used to verify or determine race or ethnicity , though the tests themselves are associated with an increased belief in racial differences. Finally, Adam Hosein argues against it for reasons of political equality. While the debates in contemporary philosophy of race within the analytic tradition have largely revolved around whether or not races exist along with criteria for determining realness or existence, philosophers working in the Continental traditions have taken up the concept of race along other dimensions see Bernasconi and Cook for an overview.
First, those working within the traditions of Existentialism and Phenomenology have called on Fanon, Merleau-Ponty, and Sartre, among others, to understand how race and functions within our lived, bodily experiences of everyday life. This strand of scholarship focuses on the materiality of race. As Emily S. Second, philosophers building on the work of Michel Foucault have articulated genealogical understandings of race that focus on its historical emergence as a concept and the ways that it has functioned within discourses of knowledge and power.
Frantz Fanon has been the primary influence for those understanding race and racism within Existentialism and Phenomenology. Sartre treats antiracism as the transition toward something else and not as an end in itself. Lewis Gordon draws on both Fanon and Sartre in articulating his Africana existentialism. Rather than a denial that other groups have been racialized, the claim instead is that such other racializations have been conditioned on a scale of European personhood to Black subpersonhood see also Mills , 6— We can understand bad faith as the evasion of responsibility and fidelity to human freedom, and an understanding of the human being as a for-itself.
Bad faith falsely turns the human being into an object without agency, into an in-itself. For Gordon, antiblack racism conceives of Blackness itself as a problem so as to avoid having to understand Black problems.
As a result, actual Black people disappear along with any responsibility to them , Gordon recounts how those commissioning the study set Du Bois up to fail so that he would only perpetuate the pathologizing of the Black population, presenting Blackness itself as a problem rather than attempt to understand the problems of Black people and communities , Whereas Gordon uses bad faith to understand antiblack racism, Zack does so to deepen her eliminativism.
For Sartre, authenticity is the antidote to bad faith — to live authentically is to understand and embrace human freedom rather than evade it. If racial identifications lack adequate support because races do not exist, then identification as mixed race is also done in bad faith.
Embodiment and visibility are central to these views. Black embodiment here is the lens used to critique whiteness and its normative gaze. For Yancy, Black resistance itself decodes and recodes Black embodied existence, affirming the value of the Black body in the face of centuries of white denial , —3.
Like Yancy, Alcoff locates race in embodied lived experience. When race operates through visibility, these ways of normalized perceptual knowing become racialized. Lee argues that racial meaning fits squarely within the space that a phenomenological framework seeks to explore, namely, the space between the natural and the cultural, the objective and the subjective, and thinking and nonthinking Lee , 8.
A second line of thought runs through the work of Michel Foucault. According to Foucault, race war discourse emerges through claims of illegitimacy against the Stuart monarchy.
These claims were couched in the language of injustice as well as foreign invasion, in which an indigenous race is pitted against in invading outsider , Race, at this point, is not a biological concept, instead referring to lineage, custom, and tradition , Only later does this cultural notion of race transform into the scientific notion of race. Cornel West employs a Foucaultian methodology to produce a genealogy of modern racism West analyzes how the discourse of modernity came into being to show how central white supremacy is to its practices of knowledge and meaning making It is a discourse comprising certain forms of rationality, scientificity, objectivity, and aesthetic and cultural ideals, the parameters of which exclude Black equality from the outset, marking it as unintelligible and illegitimate within the prevailing norms of discourse and knowledge 47— Notions of truth and knowledge produced by these three forces are governed by a value-free subject that observes, compares, orders, and measures in order to obtain evidence and make inferences that verify the true representations of reality.
Anglo-American discourse on race is therefore linked to discourses on eugenics, the family, sexual predation, normality, and population management, all of which function within the networks of power that Foucault referred to biopower , Joy James goes even further, arguing that Foucault is not useful for thinking about race at all , chapter 1.
History of the Concept of Race 2. Do Races Exist? Contemporary Philosophical Debates 3. Race versus Ethnicity 4. Race in Moral, Political and Legal Philosophy 5. History of the Concept of Race The dominant scholarly position is that the concept of race is a modern phenomenon, at least in Europe and the Americas. Contemporary Philosophical Debates Ron Mallon , , provides a nice sketch of the contemporary philosophical terrain regarding the status of the concept of race, dividing it into three valid competing schools of thought regarding the ontological status of race, along with the discarded biological conception.
Race versus Ethnicity Stephen Cornell and Douglas Hartmann provide a helpful discussion of the differences between the concepts of race and ethnicity. Race in Moral, Political and Legal Philosophy Two strands in moral, political, and legal philosophy are pertinent to the concept of race.
Race in Continental Philosophy While the debates in contemporary philosophy of race within the analytic tradition have largely revolved around whether or not races exist along with criteria for determining realness or existence, philosophers working in the Continental traditions have taken up the concept of race along other dimensions see Bernasconi and Cook for an overview.
Bibliography Alcoff, L. Alexander, M. Anderson, E. Andreasen, R. Bell and D. Blumenfeld eds. Bernasconi, R. Bethencourt, F. Blum, L. Boonin, D. Boxill, B. Brace, C. Brodkin, K. Cohen, C. Cornell, S. Davis, F. Espiritu, Y. Fanon, F. Fiscus, R. Fiss, O.
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Kull, A. Lever, A. Lebron, C. Lee, E. Lott, T. Lublin, D. Mallon, R. Mansbridge, J. In particular, even when they were faced with information that did not support their own explanation, motivated reasoning, which is reasoning constructed to obtain the preferred conclusion, continues Kunda ; Sinatra et al.
Thus, the most effective moment to educationally prevent this unintended dynamic could be when dealing with information such as skin color, reproductive isolation, or particular ethnicity, which act as mediators while teaching biology.
This does not mean that information that acts as a mediator should not be addressed in biological education at all. However, to prevent the spontaneous construction of biological explanations from supporting a discontinuous and fixed concept of race, it is necessary to be careful about the unintended biological conceptualization of the concept of race when teaching the forms of information that this study has identified as being known to act as mediators between ordinary and biological contexts.
Above all, biology teachers should be aware that these forms of information could lead to these conceptions of biological race. Consequently, additional and explicit efforts should be made by teachers when teaching such information in biology classes.
Below are the following discussions and suggestions regarding how teachers should deal with the mediators identified through three cases in class:. Case 1 showed that inference of biological racial differences could be made just by dealing with details about skin color, which, according to Hardimon , is one of the core logical components of the ordinary race concept. Human skin color is a typical example of traits resulting from the mixed effects of polygenic inheritance and environmental influences.
Therefore, it is a good example of clinal human diversity. However, if skin color is presented only as an example for learning polygenic inheritance, students are likely to misunderstand that human skin color variation is only a result of genetics, as shown in the narrative of TH.
This strategy allows students to understand the mechanism of polygenic inheritance based on Mendel genetics. However, unless the teacher later mentions that more than pairs of genes are involved in skin color genes, and that clinal variation in skin color results from natural selection related to UV, students are likely to misunderstand that only a small number of genes exist for skin color variation, and may thus assume it can be explained by folk racial categories, such as White, Black, or Asian.
Case 2 showed that belief in biological racial differences could be formed by encountering information about reproductive isolation. In addition, it is also critical to define the origin of the concept of biological species as a result of the evolutionary process. However, if it is used to interpret populations in humans, beliefs regarding biologically distinct racial populations would strengthen, as in the example of GY in case 2.
Teachers explicitly mentioning or providing additional explanations in evolution classes regarding the limits of interpreting race as reproductively isolated would be effective. In particular, in the course that teaches gene flow, which is another key mechanism that affects the evolutionary process and prevents reproductive isolation between populations, it will be effective to present high levels of gene flow among human populations.
Because of the human ability to be mobile, the gene flow of the human population occurs more actively than students normally think, and the effect of human language or culture on gene flow is not sufficient to make a distinguishable racial population Cavalli-Sforza ; Norton et al.
Most of all, it is important to teach that human evolution has complex mechanisms, including not only natural selection caused by geographical environment, but also genetic drifts, gene flow, etc.
One of the crucial forms of evidence regarding speciation is the differentiated genetic variation between populations. In Donovan et al. Case 3 showed that information about a particular ethnicity or racial group encountered in biology learning leads to a conception of the biological race.
In addition, in case 3, the perception of Jewish people was intertwined with the concept of reproductive isolation Gilman , which was also presented in case 2. Unintendedly, by solving these questions, students begin to easily think of a disease when they think of the specific ethnic group presented in question Reuter Our second suggestion is that, to encourage a proper social and scientific understanding of race, educational programs with an integrative approach are needed.
Human diversity is a subject that every member of society should contemplate. However, at the same time, it represents a very controversial subject in our society McChesney Thus, a deep discussion on human diversity is needed from both social and biological perspectives. For example, regarding the concepts of sex and gender, which are representative variables of human diversity, these hold many similarities to race.
Nevertheless, the meaning and context in which these variables are implied are significantly distinct Chong ; Davis and Preves ; Kobayashi and Peake ; Scott , If gender, which is normally used in a social context, is interpreted only in terms of genetics or physiology, there are huge limitations in understanding both to the concept of gender and to gender-related social issues. Thus, various concepts regarding human diversity are needed to provide a balanced interpretation of biological and social contexts McDade and Harris Therefore, it is a more complex and confusing concept, and should be looked at more carefully in terms of both science education and from a social perspective.
In other words, educational efforts are needed to help students to understand the socio-cultural nature of the race concept by finding and founding in the context of society, culture, and history as well as biology. According to Hubbard , simply presenting an educational material e. Therefore, further research is needed for developing educational program which explicitly deal with race from both biological and social perspective together.
Third, we suggest that further research on the unintended finding of scientific meanings from nonscientific concepts is needed. However, as our results showed, students usually cannot perform the precise scientific conceptualization process that scientists do and tend to give scientific status to ordinary concepts e.
This can lead to great problems not only in understanding the scientific concepts regarding this concept, but also in an inclusive understanding of the everyday concept. Thus, careful attention is needed regarding founded concepts related to humans as an unintended result of science learning, especially biology learning, such as the conception of biological race.
Therefore, further research is needed regarding how we educationally deal with finding unintended scientific meaning regarding nonscientific concepts. Given some limitations of this study, suggestions for further research are as follows. First, this study only focused on the conceptualization of the biological concept of race by exploring the narrative of three students.
There is a limitation that only three students cannot generalize to all biology learners in Korea. Thus, in further studies, comparison with other students who have different perceptions of race is needed for a more comprehensive understanding of the conceptualization of biological race.
Students forming scientific explanations about the world through the lens of science have normally been regarded as a positive outcome in the context of science learning Braaten and Windschitl However, as an unintended outcome of science learning, students have sometimes found a biased relationship between scientific knowledge and ordinary phenomena and even articulated their conception of ordinary phenomena as a scientific concept. In particular, this kind of unintended conceptualization could spontaneously occur after biology learning, where students can encounter various familiar concepts related to ourselves.
As humans, students can easily apply various biological principles and concepts to the organism with which they are most familiar: humans. This could make students feel like biology has even more relevance to their lives, thus motivating them to learn biology. At the same time, however, the possibility of an irrelevant conceptualization of various ordinary concepts related to humans is also high in biology learning. The cases of race in this study represent a prime example of this unintended biological conceptualization.
Not only race, but also social constructs related to the diversity of human beings, such as gender, ethnicity, intelligence, or personality type, could also be over-simplified as representing scientific reality or biological concepts as a result of biology learning. In other words, many human diversity—related concepts could easily be found and founded as a biological concept in individual minds.
However, understanding human beings simply as biological concepts is likely to have a negative impact on their attitudes and behavior toward human diversity.
There is a responsibility regarding biological education for the results of this biological conceptualization of human diversity, despite its unintentional nature. Therefore, educational efforts should focus on preventing this unintended biological conceptualization, while also helping to form a more scientific understanding of humans.
While this biological conceptualization is currently occurring in unexpected ways, we believe that through constant educational efforts, this unintended conceptualization will become expectable and guided in the future. As a case study, this research focused only on a few Korean college students.
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